Physical Test Method for Elastomers
This book provides comprehensive coverage of all aspects of physical testing of elastomers (rubbers and thermoplastic elastomers) including mechanical, electrical, thermal and all aspects of durability. Elastomers are an important class of materials used in such products as tyres, seals and hose which have markedly different properties to other materials. The importance of testing of elastomers means that a comprehensive text on the subject is essential. The advantage over general materials testing books is being more specific while the advantage over general rubber technology books is that testing is dealt with in depth.
Provides an essential, comprehensive reference on the testing of elastomers
Treats testing methods and considerations more in-depth than most general rubber technology
Critical for the rubber industry, the industries using rubber products, and polymer research
Table of Contents
PART I BEFORE YOU TEST
1 Introduction
1.1 Scope and Content
2 General Considerations
2.1 Philosophy
2.2 Test Piece History
2.3 Test Conditions
2.4 Statistics
2.5 Sampling
2.6 Limitations of Results
2.7 Quality Systems
2.8 Test Equipment
2.9 Thermoplastic Elastomers
2.10 Product Testing
3 Standards
3.1 Standards
3.1.1 Types of Standard
3.1.2 Test Methods
3.2 Organisations Producing Standards
3.2.1 Sources of Standards
3.2.2 International Standards
3.2.3 National Standards
3.2.4 Company Standards
3.3 Units
4 Conditioning and Test Atmospheres
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Storage
4.3 Conditioning
4.4 Test Conditions
4.5 Apparatus for Conditioning
4.5.1 Air Conditioned Rooms
4.5.2 Enclosures
4.5.3 Hygrometers
4.5.4 Thermometers
4.5.5 Apparatus for Elevated and Subnormal Temperatures
4.6 Mechanical Conditioning
PART II PROCESSING AND PREPARATION FOR TEST
5 Processability
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Standard Methods for Particular Polymers
5.3 Sample Preparation
5.4 Viscoelastic Flow Behaviour
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Compression Plastimeters
5.4.3 Plasticity Retention Index
5.4.4 Rotation Plastimeters
5.4.5 Extrusion Rheometers
5.4.6 Mixing Machines
5.4.7 Other Processability Tests
5.4.8 Correlation Between Plastimeters
5.5 Scorch and Cure Rate
5.5.1 Introduction
5.5.2 Types of Curemeter
5.5.3 Extended Use of Curemeter Type Instruments
5.5.4 Alternative Methods
5.6 Tack
5.7 Other Tests
6 Preparation of Test Pieces
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Mixing and Moulding
6.3 Cutting from Sheet
6.4 Test Pieces from Finished Products
7 Mass, Density and Dimensions
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Mass
7.3 Density
7.4 Dimensions
7.4.1 Dimensions Needed
7.4.2 Standard Methods
7.4.3 Non-standard Methods
7.4.4 Surface Roughness
7.4.5 Extensometry
7.4.6 Dimensional Stability
7.4.7 Dispersion
PART III SHORT TERM MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
8 Stress and Strain Data
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Stress/Strain Relationships
8.3 Poisson’s Ratio
8.4 Data for Finite Element Analysis
9 Hardness
9.1 What Is Hardness?
9.2 Introduction to Rubber Hardness Tests
9.3 Dead Load Tests
9.3.1 IRHD Method, Normal Scale
9.3.2 High and Low Scales
9.3.3 Micro Tests
9.3.4 Apparent Hardness
9.3.5 British and ASTM standards
9.4 Durometer Tests
9.5 Nano and Dynamic Methods
9.6 Accuracy and Comparison of Hardness Tests
9.7 Use of Hardness Tests
10 Tension
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Form of Test Piece
10.3 Measurement of Test Pieces
10.4 Apparatus
10.4.1 Tensile Machine
10.4.2 Grips
10.4.3 Application of Force
10.4.4 Force Measurement
10.4.5 Elongation Measurement
10.5 Calculation and Expression of Results
10.6 Relaxed Modulus
10.7 Biaxial Extension
11 Compression
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Test Methods
11.3 Bulk Compression
12 Shear and Flexure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Simple Shear
12.3 Pure Shear
12.4 Torsion
12.5 Flexure
13 Tear .
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Forms of Test Piece
13.3 Preparation of Test Pieces
13.4 Measurement of Tearing Force
13.5 Expression of Results
13.6 Fracture Mechanics Approach
13.7 Cutting Resistance
PART IV TIME DEPENDENT PROPERTIES
14 Dynamic Stress and Strain
14.1 Principles of Dynamic Tests
14.2 Rebound Resilience
14.2.1 Principle
14.2.2 Pendulum Methods
14.2.3 Falling Weight Methods
14.3 Free Vibration Methods
14.3.1 Introduction
14.3.2 Yerzley Oscillograph
14.3.3 Torsion Pendulum
14.4 Forced Vibration Methods
14.4.1 Introduction
14.4.2 Brief Review of Forced Vibration Apparatus
14.4.3 Standard Methods
14.5 Comparison of Dynamic Methods
15 Creep, Relaxation and Set
15.1 Introduction .
15.2 Creep
15.3 Stress Relaxation
15.3.1 Introduction
15.3.2 Standard Methods in Compression
15.3.3 Apparatus
15.3.4 Use of Stress Relaxation Data
15.4 Set
15.4.1 Principle
15.4.2 Tests in Compression
15.4.3 Tests in Tension
PART V PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
16 Electrical Properties
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Resistance and Resistivity
16.2.1 General
16.2.2 Tests on Insulating Rubbers
16.2.3 Tests on Conducting and Anti-static Rubbers
16.3 Surface Charge
16.4 Electric Strength
16.5 Tracking Resistance
16.6 Permittivity and Power Factor
17 Thermal Properties
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Thermal Analysis
17.3 Specific Heat
17.4 Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity
17.4.1 Introduction
17.4.2 Thermal Conductivity
17.4.3 Thermal Diffusivity
17.5 Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient
18 Permeability
18.1 Basic Theory
18.2 Gas Permeability
18.2.1 General
18.2.2 Differential Pressure Methods
18.2.3 Equal Pressure Methods
18.2.4 High Pressure Measurements
18.3 Vapour Permeability
PART VI DURABILITY
19 Friction and Abrasion
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Friction
19.2.1 Factors Affecting Friction
19.2.2 Methods of Measuring Friction
19.2.3 Standard Methods
19.3 Wear
19.3.1 General
19.3.2 Wear Mechanisms
19.3.3 Types of Abrasion Test
19.3.4 Abradants
19.3.5 Test Conditions
19.3.6 Expression of Results and Standard Rubbers
19.3.7 Test Apparatus
19.3.8 Comparison of Methods
20 Fatigue
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Flex-Cracking and Cut-Growth Tests
20.2.1 General
20.2.2 Flexing Methods
20.2.3 Tests in Tension
20.2.4 Tests in Shear
20.2.5 Other Tests
20.3 Heat Build-Up
21 Effect of Temperature
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Thermal Expansion
21.3 Transition Temperature
21.4 Low Temperature Tests
21.4.1 General
21.4.2 Recovery Tests
21.4.3 Change in Stiffness
21.4.4 Brittleness Temperature
21.4.5 Comparison of Methods
21.4.6 Crystallisation
21.5 Heat Ageing
21.5.1 General .
21.5.2 Standard Exposure Tests
21.5.3 Monitoring Degradation
21.5.4 Stress Relaxation
21.5.5 Correlation with Natural Ageing
22 Effect of Environment
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Moist Heat and Steam Tests
22.3 Effect of Liquids
22.3.1 General
22.3.2 Standard Methods
22.3.3 Standard Liquids
22.3.4 Non-standard Methods
22.3.5 Water Absorption
22.4 Effect of Gases (Other than Ozone)
22.5 Effect of Ozone
22.5.1 General
22.5.2 Ozone Cabinet
22.5.3 Measurement of Ozone Concentration
22.5.4 Test Piece
22.5.5 Conditioning
22.5.6 Test Conditions
22.5.7 Test Procedure
22.5.8 Expression of Results
22.5.9 Dynamic Ozone Results
22.5.10 Stress Relaxation
22.6 Weathering
22.7 Biological Attack
22.8 Fire
22.9 Radiation
PART VII INTERACTION WITH OTHER MATERIALS
23 Adhesion
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Adhesion to Metals
23.2.1 General
23.2.2 Standard Methods
23.2.3 Other Methods
23.2.4 Non-destructive Tests
23.3 Adhesion to Fabrics
23.3.1 General
23.3.2 Peel Tests
23.3.3 Direct Tension Tests
23.3.4 Dynamic Tests
23.4 Adhesion to Cord
24 Corrosion and Staining
24.1 Corrosion of and Adhesion to Metals
24.2 Staining
24.2.1 General
24.2.2 Definitions
24.2.3 ISO Procedure
24.2.4 Assessment of Staining
24.2.5 Other Standards
References & Index