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Rubber Technology - Compounding & Testing For Performance
Author : John S Dick | Edition : 3rd | 2020 | 800 pages
A Practical Guide to Cost-Effective Formulating Of Rubber Compounds…
The latest third Edition of Rubber Technology: Compounding and Testing for Performance is a practical guide to cost-effective formulating of rubber compounds to achieve optimal processing and performance. It provides a thorough discussion of the principles of rubber compounding, rubber testing, and how various compound changes affect different properties and test measurements. Rubber compounding is discussed as a series of interdependent systems, such as the elastomer system, the filler-oil system, the cure system, among others. A holistic approach is used to show how changes in these different systems will affect specific compound properties.
Much attention is given to tradeoffs in properties and emphasis is placed on finding the best balance for compound cost, processing properties, and product performance. New in this third edition is the updated and extended section on silicone elastomers as well as the significantly expanded and newly written chapters on recycled rubber and precipitated silica and non-black fillers. A Practical Guide to Cost-Effective Formulating Of Rubber Compounds…
The latest third Edition of Rubber Technology: Compounding and Testing for Performance is a practical guide to cost-effective formulating of rubber compounds to achieve optimal processing and performance. It provides a thorough discussion of the principles of rubber compounding, rubber testing, and how various compound changes affect different properties and test measurements. Rubber compounding is discussed as a series of interdependent systems, such as the elastomer system, the filler-oil system, the cure system, among others. A holistic approach is used to show how changes in these different systems will affect specific compound properties. Much attention is given to tradeoffs in properties and emphasis is placed on finding the best balance for compound cost, processing properties, and product performance.
New in this third edition is the updated and extended section on silicone elastomers as well as the significantly expanded and newly written chapters on recycled rubber and precipitated silica and non-black fillers.
Table of Contents
1 Rubber Compounding: Introduction, Definitions, and
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Recipe
1.3 Classification of Rubber Compounding Ingredients
1.4 Standard Abbreviations for Compounding Ingredients
1.5 The Diversity of Rubber Recipes
1.6 Compatibility of Compounding Ingredients
1.7 Rubber Compounding Ingredients’ Specifications
1.8 Raw Material Source Books
1.9 Key Source References for Formulations
1.10 Technical Organizations
1.11 Key Technical Journals and Trade Magazines
1.12 Regularly Scheduled Technical Conferences
1.12.1 Regularly Scheduled Courses
2 Compound Processing Characteristics and Testing
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Manufacturing Process
2.2.1 Two Roll Mill
2.2.2 Internal Mixers
2.2.3 Further Downstream Processing
2.2.4 Curing Process
2.2.5 Factory Problems
2.3 Processability Characteristics and Measurements
2.3.1 Viscosity
2.3.1.1 Rotational Viscometers
2.3.1.2 Capillary Rheometer
2.3.1.3 Oscillating Rheometers
2.3.1.4 Compression Plastimeters
2.3.2 Shear Thinning
2.3.2.1 Shear Thinning by Capillary Rheometer
2.3.2.2 Shear Thinning by Oscillating Rheometer
2.3.3 Elasticity
2.3.3.1 Mooney Stress Relaxation
2.3.3.2 Elasticity by Oscillating Rheometer
2.3.3.3 Capillary Rheometer Die Swell
2.3.3.4 Compression Plastimeter Elastic Recovery
2.3.3.5 Direct Shrinkage Measurements
2.3.4 Time to Scorch
2.3.4.1 Scorch by Rotational Viscometer
2.3.4.2 Scorch by Oscillating Rheometer
2.3.4.3 Scorch by Capillary Rheometer
2.3.5 Cure Rate
2.3.5.1 Cure Rate by Rotational Viscometer
2.3.5.2 Cure Times and Cure Rate by Oscillating Rheometer
2.3.6 Ultimate State of Cure
2.3.6.1 Ring Testing
2.3.6.2 Oscillating Rheometer
2.3.7 Reversion Resistance
2.3.8 Green Strength .
2.3.9 Tackiness
2.3.10 Stickiness
2.3.11 Dispersion
2.3.12 Stock Storage Stability
2.3.13 Mis-Compounding
2.3.14 Cellular Rubber Blow Reaction
3 Vulcanizate Physical Properties, Performance Characteristics, and Testing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Density
3.3 Hardness
3.4 Tensile Stress–Strain
3.5 Stress–Strain Properties under Compression
3.6 Stress–Strain Properties under Shear
3.7 Dynamic Properties
3.8 Low Temperature Properties
3.8.1 Brittle Point
3.8.2 Gehman Test
3.9 Stress Relaxation, Creep, and Set
3.10 Permeability (Transmission)
3.11 Cured Adhesion
3.12 Tear Resistance
3.13 Degradation Properties
3.13.1 Flex Fatigue Resistance
3.13.2 Heat Resistance
3.13.3 Ozone Resistance
3.13.4 Weathering Resistance
3.13.5 Resistance to Liquids
3.13.6 Abrasion and Wear Resistance
4 Rubber Compound Economics
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Compound Cost Calculations
4.2.1 Specific Gravity
4.2.2 Cost/lb
4.2.3 Lb-Volume Cost
4.2.4 Part Cost
4.2.5 Conversion Factors for Calculating Part Cost
4.2.5.1 in3 and cost/lb
4.2.5.2 cm3 and cost/kg
4.2.5.3 ft3 and cost/lb
4.2.5.4 cm3 and cost/lb
4.2.5.5 Relative Costs
4.2.5.6 Developing Conversion Factors
4.3 Measuring Specific Gravity (Density)
4.4 Cost Calculations
4.4.1 Base Compound 85
4.4.2 Same Ingredient Volume and Equal Cost
4.4.3 Low Cost/lb
4.4.4 High Specific Gravity
4.5 Compound Design and Cost
4.6 Reducing Compound Cost
4.6.1 High-Structure Carbon Blacks
4.6.2 White Compounds
4.6.3 Antioxidants/Antiozonants
4.6.4 Polymer Substitutions
4.6.4.1 High Cost/High Specific Gravity Polymers
4.6.4.2 Clear and Oil-Extended Polymer Replacements
4.6.4.3 Carbon Black/Oil Masterbatches Replacing Free Mix Compounds
4.6.4.4 Extrusion Productivity
4.6.4.5 Vulcanization Productivity .
Appendix 4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5 The Technical Project Approach to Experimental Design and Compound Development
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Part 1: Steps in a Technical Project
5.2.1 Initial Action Required
5.2.1.1 Planning Model
5.2.1.2 Work, Time, and Cost Proposal
5.2.2 Experimental Design
5.2.2.1 Selecting Variables or Factors
5.2.2.2 Selecting Test Instruments and Procedures
5.2.2.3 Developing a Response Model
5.2.2.4 Selecting an Experimental Design
5.2.3 Conduct Measurements and Obtain Data
5.2.4 Conduct Analysis and Evaluate Preliminary Model
5.2.5 Prepare Report
5.3 Part 2: Using Experimental Designs
5.3.1 Screening Designs – Simple Treatment Comparisons
5.3.1.1 Design C1 for Uniform Replication Conditions
5.3.1.2 Design C1 for Non-Uniform Replication Conditions
5.3.1.3 Design C2 for Multi-Treatment Comparisons
5.3.2 Screening Designs – Multifactor Experiments
5.3.2.1 Two-Level Factorial Designs
5.3.2.2 Analysis of the Designs
5.3.2.3 Calculating the Effect Coefficients
5.3.2.4 Reviewing Designs S1 to S11
5.3.3 Exploratory Designs – Multifactor Experiments
5.3.4 Evaluating the Statistical Significance of Effect Coefficients
5.3.4.1 Evaluating Standard Errors for Effect Coefficients: Screening Designs
5.3.4.2 Four-Factor Screening Design: An Example
Appendix 5.1 – A Catalog of Experimental Designs
6 Elastomer Selection
6.1 Overview
6.1.1 Commodity and General Purpose Elastomers
6.1.1.1 Natural Rubber (NR)
6.1.1.2 Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR)
6.1.1.3 Polybutadiene Rubber (BR)
6.1.2 High-Volume Specialty Elastomers
6.1.2.1 Polyisoprene (IR)
6.1.2.2 Nitrile Rubber (NBR)
6.1.2.3 Ethylene-Propylene-Diene (EPDM)
6.1.2.4 Polychloroprene (CR)
6.1.2.5 Butyl and Halogenated Butyl Elastomers
6.1.2.6 Chlorinated and Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene
6.1.3 Low-Volume Specialty Elastomers
6.1.3.1 Fluoroelastomers
6.1.3.2 Silicone and Fluorosilicone Rubber
6.1.3.3 Polyurethane Rubber
6.1.3.4 Ethylene-Acrylic Rubber
6.1.3.5 Polyacrylate Rubber 162
6.1.3.6 Epichlorohydrin Rubber
6.1.3.7 Polyolefin Elastomers
6.1.3.8 Polysulfide Rubber
6.1.4 Thermoplastic Elastomers
7 General Purpose Elastomers and Blends
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Natural Rubber and Polyisoprene
7.3 Polybutadiene
7.4 Copolymers and Terpolymers of Styrene, Butadiene,and Isoprene
7.5 Compounding with General Purpose Polymers
7.5.1 Polymer Characterization and Effect on Mixing
7.5.2 Polymer Effect on Cure Rate
7.5.3 Polymer Effect on Stress–Strain
7.5.4 Hysteresis
7.5.5 Compatibility with SIR 10
7.5.6 Fatigue Properties
7.5.7 Compression Set
8 Specialty Elastomers
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Butyl Rubber
8.2.2 Butyl Rubber Physical Properties
8.2.3 Butyl Rubber Properties, Vulcanization, and Applications
8.2.4 Gas Permeability
8.2.5 Ozone and Weathering Resistance
8.2.6 Butyl Rubber Vulcanization
8.2.6.1 Accelerated Sulfur Vulcanization
8.2.6.2 The Dioxime Cure
8.2.6.3 The Resin Cure
8.3 Halogenated Butyl Rubber
8.3.2 Compounding Halobutyl and Star-Branched Halobutyl Rubbers
8.3.2.1 Carbon Black
8.3.2.2 Mineral Fillers
8.3.2.3 Plasticizers
8.3.2.4 Processing Aids
8.3.3 Processing Halobutyl Rubber
8.3.3.1 Mixing
8.3.3.2 Calendering
8.3.3.3 Extrusion
8.3.3.4 Molding
8.3.4 Halobutyl Rubber Vulcanization and Applications
8.3.4.1 Straight Sulfur Cure
8.3.4.2 Zinc Oxide Cure and Modifications
8.3.4.3 Zinc-Free Cures
8.3.4.4 Peroxide Cures
8.3.4.5 Vulcanization through Bis-Alkylation
8.3.4.6 Resin Cure
8.3.4.7 Scorch Control
8.3.4.8 Stability of Halobutyl Crosslinks
8.3.5 Halobutyl Rubber General Applications
8.3.6 Cured Properties
8.3.6.1 Permeability
8.3.6.2 Heat Resistance
8.3.6.3 Resistance to Chemicals and Solvents
8.3.7 Flex Resistance/Dynamic Properties
8.3.8 Compatibility with Other Elastomers
8.3.9 Halobutyl Rubber Compound Applications
8.3.9.1 Tire Innerliners
8.3.9.2 Pharmaceutical Closures
8.3.9.3 Heat Resistant Conveyor Belt
8.4 EPM/EPDM
8.4.2 Ethylene/Propylene Content
8.4.3 Diene Content
8.4.4 Rheology
8.5 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene Rubber
8.5.1 Introduction
8.5.2 Chemical and Physical Properties – Relating to Application
8.5.2.1 Acrylonitrile Content (ACN)
8.5.2.2 Mooney Viscosity
8.5.2.3 Emulsifier
8.5.2.4 Stabilizer
8.5.2.5 Coagulation
8.5.3 Polymer (Elastomer) Microstructure
8.5.4 Polymer (Elastomer) Macrostructure
8.5.5 Gel
8.5.6 Molecular Weight
8.5.7 Hot NBR
8.5.8 Crosslinked Hot NBR
8.5.9 Cold NBR
8.5.10 Carboxylated Nitrile (XNBR)
8.5.11 Bound Antioxidant NBR
8.6 Hydrogenated Nitrile Butadiene Elastomers
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Applications
8.6.3 Properties
8.6.4 Formulating
8.6.5 Processing
8.7 Polyacrylate Elastomers
8.7.1 Polymer Composition
8.7.2 Basic Compounding of Polyacrylate Polymers
8.7.3 Processing Guidelines
8.8 Polychloroprene (Neoprene)
8.8.1 Introduction
8.8.2 Basic Characteristics of Polychloroprene
8.8.3 Families of Neoprene
8.8.4 Neoprene “G” Family
8.8.5 Neoprene “W” Family
8.8.6 Neoprene “T” Family
8.9 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CM)
8.9.2 General Characteristics
8.10 Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSM)
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.2 General Purpose Types of Hypalon
8.10.3 Specialty Types of Hypalon
8.10.4 Unvulcanized Applications
8.11 Polyepichlorohydrin Elastomer
8.11.2 Properties
8.11.3 Formulating
8.11.4 Nonlead Cure Systems
8.11.5 Adjustments
8.11.6 Processing
8.11.7 Internal Mixer – Procedure
8.11.8 Extrusion
8.11.9 Molding
Appendix 8.1 – List of Chemicals
Appendix 8.2 – List of Plasticizers
8.12 Ethylene-Acrylic Elastomers
8.12.2 Polymer Composition and Effect on Properties
8.12.3 Polymer Selection
8.13 Polynorbornene
8.13.2 Applications
8.13.3 Compounding
8.13.4 Fillers
8.13.5 Oils/Plasticizers
8.13.6 Cure System
8.13.7 Rebound/Resilience
8.13.8 Vibration Damping
8.13.9 Blends
8.13.10 Mixing and Processing
8.13.10.1 Mill Mixing
8.13.10.2 Internal Mixers
8.13.11 Calendering
8.13.12 Extrusion
8.13.13 Molding
8.13.14 Summary
8.14 Fluoroelastomer (FKM)
8.14.1 Introduction
8.14.2 Background
8.14.3 Applications
8.14.4 VitonR Types
8.15 Silicone Elastomers
8.15.1 Introduction
8.15.2 Selection
8.15.3 Fillers
8.15.4 Anti-Structuring Agents
8.15.5 Heat Stabilizers
8.15.6 Peroxide Cures
8.15.7 Platinum Cures
8.15.8 RTV Cures
9 Polyurethane Elastomers
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Polyurethane Chemistry and Morphology
9.3 Polyurethane Products
9.4 Cast Polyurethane Processing Overview
9.5 Molding Methods
9.5.1 Open Casting
9.5.2 Centrifugal Molding
9.5.3 Vacuum Casting
9.5.4 Compression Molding
9.5.5 Transfer Molding
9.5.6 Liquid Injection Molding (LIM)
9.5.7 Spraying . . . . . . 296
9.5.8 Moldless Rotational Casting
9.6 How to Select a Polyurethane Elastomer
9.6.1 Types of Prepolymers
9.6.2 Types of Curatives
9.6.3 Processing Conditions
9.6.4 Additives
9.7 Comparison of Polyurethanes with Other Elastomers
9.7.1 Limitations of Polyurethane Elastomers
9.8 Polyurethane Selection Guidelines
9.8.1 Selecting a Polyurethane Elastomer for a New Application
9.9 Millable Gums
9.10 Thermoplastic Polyurethanes
10 Thermoplastic Elastomers
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Position in Spectrum of Polymeric Materials
10.3 Classification of TPEs
10.3.1 Chemistry and Morphology
10.3.2 Styrenic Block Copolymers
10.3.3 Copolyesters
10.3.4 Thermoplastic Polyurethanes
10.3.5 Polyamides
10.3.6 Thermoplastic Elastomeric Olefins
10.3.7 Thermoplastic Vulcanizates
10.4 TPEs and Thermoset Rubbers
10.5 Fabrication of TPEs
10.5.1 Economy of Thermoplastics Processing
10.5.2 Injection Molding
10.5.3 Extrusion
10.5.4 Blow Molding
10.5.5 Other Processing Methods
11 Recycled Rubber
11.2 History
11.3 Production Methods
11.3.1 Reclaim Rubber Process
11.3.2 Rubber Powder via Ambient and Cryogenic Processes
11.3.3 Rubber Powder via Ultra-High Pressure Water Jet Milling
11.3.4 Treated or Functionalized Rubber Powder
11.4 Classification, Characterization, and Testing of Recycled Rubber Powders
11.4.1 Classification System
11.4.2 Testing Methods for Particle Size Determination
11.4.2.1 ASTM D5644 Method A – The Ro-Tap Procedure
11.4.2.2 ASTM D5644 Method B – Ultrasonic and Light Microscopy Technique
11.4.2.3 Laser Particle Size Analysis
11.4.2.4 Surface Area Determination
11.4.2.5 Surface Characterization
11.5 Comparison of Ambient and Cryogenically Prepared Recycled Rubber Powder
11.6 Physical and Rheological Properties of Rubber Compounds Mixed with Recycled Rubber Powder
11.6.1 RRP Baseline Study
11.6.2 Addition Point of Recycled Rubber Powder
11.6.3 Sulfur–Accelerator Optimization with Recycled Rubber Powder
11.6.4 Weathering Resistance with Recycled Rubber Powder
11.6.5 Heat Aging Resistance of Recycled Rubber Powder Containing Optimized Recipe
11.6.6 Selecting the Appropriate Recycled Rubber Powder Particle Size/Surface Area
11.6.7 Use of Recycled Rubber Powder in Solution SBR/Silica-Silane Tire Tread
11.7 New Technology for Recycled Rubber
11.7.1 EkoDyneTM Test Results in a Carbon Black Model Compound
11.7.2 EkoDyneTM Test Results in a Silica-Silane Model Compound
11.8 Executive Summary
12 Compounding with Carbon Black and Oil
12.1 Introduction: Carbon Black Affects Everything
12.2 Characterization of Carbon Black
12.2.1 The Particle, the Aggregate, and the Agglomerate
12.2.2 Surface Area, Structure, and Surface Activity
12.2.3 Constituents Other than Carbon (Impurities)
12.2.4 Pellets
12.2.5 ASTM Nomenclature
12.3 Handling Carbon Black
12.4 Mixing Carbon Black
12.4.1 Pellet Properties and Analyticals (Also Called Colloidal Properties)
12.4.2 Effect of Analyticals on Dispersion
12.4.3 The Mixing Process
12.5 Subsequent Processability of the Compound
12.6 Compounding Carbon Black
12.6.1 Optimum Loading
12.6.2 Importance of Dispersion
12.6.3 Carbon Black Compounding Tips
12.6.3.1 Hardness
12.6.3.2 Processing Oil
12.6.3.3 Other Vulcanizate Properties
12.6.3.4 Vulcanizate Hysteresis
12.6.4 The Tire Industry’s Tradeoffs
12.7 Hysteresis Reducing Tips
12.7.1 “Radical Compounding”
12.7.2 Lower Loadings of High Structure Carbon Blacks
12.7.3 Carbon-Silica Dual Phase Fillers
12.8 Practical Applications: Tire Examples
12.8.1 OE Passenger-Tire Treads
12.8.2 Replacement Passenger-Tire Treads
12.8.3 HP Passenger-Tire Treads
12.8.4 Medium Radial Truck Treads
12.8.5 Wire Coat or Skim Stocks
12.8.6 Innerliner Compounding
12.9 Major Tradeoffs for Industrial Rubber Products
12.9.1 Loading/Reinforcement/Cost
12.10 Compounding Tips: Industrial Rubber Products
12.10.1 Extrusion Profiles and Products
12.10.2 Molded Products
12.10.3 Hose Applications
12.11 Basics of Carbon Black Manufacture
12.11.1 History
12.11.2 The Oil-Furnace Process
13 Precipitated Silica and Non-Black Fillers
13.1.1 General Properties and Costs of Non-Black Fillers
13.1.2 Use and Selection of Non-Black Fillers for Rubber Compounds
13.1.3 Factors Considered for Reinforcing Rubber with Fillers
13.1.3.1 Filler Particle Size and Surface Area
13.1.3.2 Filler Anisometry – Shape and Morphology
13.1.3.3 Surface Activity and Surface Energy
13.2 Mineral Fillers
13.2.1 An Overview of the Most Commonly Used Non-Black Fillers
13.2.1.1 Calcium Carbonate
13.2.1.2 Clay
13.2.2 Other Mineral Fillers
13.2.2.1 Talc
13.2.2.2 Barite
13.2.2.3 Mica
13.2.2.4 Alumina Trihydrate (ATH)
13.3 Synthetic Silica
13.3.1 Precipitated Silica
13.3.2 Precipitated Silica Characterization
13.3.2.1 Structure and Surface Chemistry
13.3.2.2 Surface Area
13.3.2.3 Pore Volume and Void Volume
13.3.2.4 Void Volume
13.3.2.5 Silica Dispersion and Silanization
13.3.3 Highly Dispersible Silica (HDS)
13.3.4 Rice Husk Silica
13.3.5 Silica Surface Treatment
13.3.6 Pre-treated Silica
13.3.7 Masterbatching
13.4 Non-Black Nanoparticles and Polymeric Nanocomposites
13.4.1 Nano-Precipitated CaCO3 (Ultrafine Precipitated CaCO3)
13.4.1.1 Nano-CaCO3 Surface Modification and Their Use for Nano-Composites
13.4.1.2 Application Examples of Nano-CaCO3 in Various Rubbers
13.4.2 Layered Silicates and Their Nanocomposites
13.4.2.1 Organoclay (Organic Layer Silicate) –Montmorillonite
13.4.2.2 Cationic Clays – Hectorite and Their Applications in Rubber Nanocomposites
13.4.2.3 Anionic Clays – Layered Double Hydroxide (LDH) and Their Applications in Rubber
Composites
13.4.3 Polymeric Core-Shell Nanoparticles
13.4.3.1 Synthesis of Core-Shell Polymeric Nanoparticles
13.4.3.2 Reinforcement and Performance of Rubber Compounds by Adding Tailored Polymeric Core-Shell Nanoparticles
13.5 Applications of Non-Black Fillers in Selected Segments of the Rubber Industry
13.5.1 Tires
13.5.1.1 Tread Compounds
13.5.1.2 Innerliner Compound
13.5.1.3 White Sidewall Compounds
13.5.2 Wires and Cables
13.5.2.1 Rubbers for High Voltage Insulation
13.5.3 Automotive Hose
13.5.4 Shoe and Footwear Products
13.5.5 Silicone-Rubber Compounding
14 Ester Plasticizers and Processing Additives
14.1 Ester Plasticizers for Elastomers
14.1.1 Derivation
14.1.2 Philosophical
14.1.3 Applications
14.1.3.1 Low-ACN Content NBR
14.1.3.2 Neoprene Blend GN 88/WHV 12
14.1.3.3 Different Elastomers with the Same Plasticizer
14.1.3.4 Medium Acrylonitrile-Content NBR
14.1.3.5 Medium ACN NBR
14.1.3.6 Medium-High ACN-Content NBR
14.1.3.7 NBR/PVC Polyblends
14.1.3.8 Ethylene Acrylic and Polyacrylate Elastomers
14.1.3.9 Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSM)
14.1.3.10 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE)
14.1.4 Application Trends
14.2 Process Additives
14.2.1 Control of Viscosity
14.2.1.1 Viscosity Control of Natural Rubber
14.2.1.2 Viscosity Control of Synthetic Rubber
14.2.2 Mode of Action of Process Additives
14.2.2.1 Surface Lubricants
14.2.2.2 Process Additives for Homogenizing and Improving Filler Dispersion
14.2.3 Application of Process Additives
Appendix 14.1 – Common Esters for Rubber
Appendix 14.2 – Abbreviations and Definitions
15 Sulfur Cure Systems
15.1 Introduction and Historical Background
15.2 Vulcanizing Agents
15.3 Activators
15.4 Accelerators
15.5 Conventional, Semi-Efficient, and Efficient Cures
15.6 Retarders and Inhibitors
15.7 Recent Developments
16 Cures for Specialty Elastomers
16.2 Cure Systems for EPDM
16.3 Cure Systems for Nitrile
16.4 Cure Systems for Polychloroprene
16.5 Cure Systems for Butyl and Halobutyl Rubber
17 Peroxide Cure Systems
17.1.1 What is an Organic Peroxide?
17.1.2 Classes of Organic Peroxides
17.1.3 General Peroxide Selection Guidelines
17.1.3.1 Half-Life
17.1.3.2 Minimum Cure Time
17.1.3.3 SADT (Self Accelerating Decomposition Temperature)
17.1.3.4 Maximum Storage Temperature (MST)
17.1.3.5 Energy of Peroxide Free Radicals
17.1.3.6 Peroxide Polymer Masterbatches
17.1.3.7 High Performance (HP) Peroxide Formulations for Improved Productivity
17.2 Peroxides Used in Crosslinking
17.2.1 Diacyl Peroxides
17.2.2 Peroxyester and Monoperoxycarbonate Peroxides
17.2.3 Peroxyketal and Dialkyl Type Peroxides
17.2.4 Performance Characteristics of Dialkyl Type Peroxides
17.2.5 t-Amyl and t-Butyl Type Peroxides
17.2.6 Effect of Additives When Crosslinking with Peroxides
17.3 Role of Monomeric Coagents in Peroxide Crosslinking
17.3.1 Crosslinking PE with Coagents and Peroxides
17.3.2 Crosslinking EPDM with Coagents and Peroxides
17.3.3 Crosslinking HNBR with Coagents and Peroxides
17.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Peroxide Crosslinking versus Sulfur Vulcanization
18 Tackifying, Curing, and Reinforcing Resins
18.2 Phenol-Formaldehyde Resins
18.2.1 Types of Phenol-Formaldehyde Resins
18.2.1.1 Reinforcing Resins
18.2.1.2 Tackifying Resins
18.2.1.3 Curing Resins
18.3 Methylene Donor Resins
18.4 Resorcinol-Based Resins
18.5 High Styrene Resins
18.6 Petroleum-Derived Resins
18.7 Wood-Derived Resins
19 Antidegradants
19.2 Properties of Antidegradants
19.2.1 Discoloration and Staining
19.2.2 Volatility
19.2.3 Solubility and Migration
19.2.4 Chemical Stability
19.2.5 Physical Form
19.2.6 Antidegradant Concentration
19.3 Antidegradant Types
19.3.1 Non-Staining, Non-Discoloring Antioxidants
19.3.1.1 Hindered Phenols
19.3.1.2 Hindered “Bis” Phenols
19.3.1.3 Substituted Hydroquinones
19.3.1.4 Phosphites
19.3.1.5 Organic Sulfur Compounds
19.3.1.6 Hindered Amine and Nitroxyl Compounds
19.3.2 Staining/Discoloring Antioxidants
19.3.2.1 Phenylnaphthylamines
19.3.2.2 Dihydroquinolines
19.3.2.3 Diphenylamine Derivatives
19.3.2.4 Substituted Paraphenylenediamines (PPDs)
19.3.2.5 Amine-based, “Bound-in” or “Polymer Bound” Antioxidants
19.3.3 Antiozonants
19.3.3.1 Petroleum Waxes
19.3.3.2 Nickel Dibutyldithiocarbamate (NBC)
19.3.3.3 6-Ethoxy-2,2,4-trimethyl-1,2-dihydroquinoline (ETMQ)
19.3.3.4 Substituted Paraphenylenediamines (PPDs)
19.4 Examples of Antidegradant Activity
19.4.1 Oxidation Resistance
19.4.2 Effect of Antidegradants on Fatigue Life
19.4.3 Combinations of Antiozonants and Antioxidants
19.4.4 Resistance to Metal Poisoning
20 Compounding for Brass Wire Adhesion
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Wire Bonding Systems
20.2.1 Cobalt
20.2.2 RF Resin-Cobalt
20.3 The Adhesion Mechanism
20.4 Compound Ingredient Effects
20.4.1 Mixing
20.4.2 Testing
20.4.3 Regression Plots
20.4.3.1 Carbon Black
20.4.3.2 Zinc Oxide/Stearic Acid
20.4.3.3 Sulfur/DCBS
20.4.3.4 Cobalt
20.4.3.5 RF Resin/HMMM
20.4.3.6 Carbon Black/Silica
20.4.3.7 Summary of Test Results
20.5 Model NR Ply Compounds 681
20.5.1 Black Control Compound
20.5.2 Black/Cobalt Compound
20.5.3 Black/Cobalt/RF Resin
20.5.4 Black/Silica/Cobalt/RF Resin
21 Chemical Blowing Agents
21.2 Terminology
21.2.1 Open Cell Structure
21.2.2 Closed Cell Structure
21.3 Inorganic Blowing Agents
21.4 Organic Blowing Agents
21.4.1 Azodicarbonamide (ADC)
21.4.1.1 Properties
21.4.1.2 Activation
21.4.1.3 Factors Affecting Performance
21.4.1.4 Effect of Particle Size
21.4.1.5 Effect of Temperature
21.4.1.6 ADC Activation and Cell Size
21.4.2 Sulfonyl Hydrazides
21.4.2.1 Properties
21.4.2.2 Activation
21.4.2.3 Applications
21.4.3 Dinitrosopentamethylenetetramine (DNPT)
21.4.3.1 Properties
21.4.3.2 Activation
21.5 Methods of Expansion
21.5.1 Low Pressure Molding Process
21.5.2 High Pressure Molding Process
21.5.2.1 Precure Stage
21.5.2.2 Final Cure Stage
21.5.3 Continuous Vulcanization (CV)
22 Flame Retardants
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Fire Standards, Testing, and Applications
22.3 Commonly Used Flame Retardants in Elastomers
22.3.1 Aliphatic and Alicyclic Halogen Sources
22.3.2 Aromatic Halogen Sources
22.3.3 Synergists of Halogen Sources
22.3.3.1 Antimony Oxide
22.3.3.2 Zinc Borate
22.3.3.3 Phosphorus Compounds
22.3.4 Flame Retardant Fillers
22.3.4.1 Alumina Trihydrate (ATH)
22.3.4.2 Magnesium Hydroxide
22.3.4.3 Calcium Carbonate .
22.3.4.4 Clay, Talc, and Silica
22.3.4.5 Carbon Black
22.4 Compounding and Dispersion Considerations
22.4.1 Polychloroprene (CR)
22.4.2 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CM)
22.4.3 Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSM)
22.4.4 Ethylene-Propylene-Diene-Monomer (EPDM)
22.4.5 Styrene-Butadiene (SBR)
22.4.6 Nitrile-Butadiene Rubber (NBR) and Hydrogenated-Nitrile-Butadiene Rubber (HNBR)
22.4.7 Silicone Elastomer
22.4.8 Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVM)
22.4.9 Ethylene-Propylene Elastomer (EPR)
22.4.10 Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPE)
23 Rubber Mixing
23.2 History
23.3 Equipment
23.3.1 Mills
23.3.2 Internal Mixers
23.3.2.1 Tangential Rotor Type
23.3.2.2 Intermeshing Rotor Type
23.3.2.3 Variable Internal Clearance Mixer
23.3.2.4 Continuous Mixers
23.3.2.5 Extruders
23.4 Mixing .
23.4.1 Mill Mixing
23.4.2 Internal Mixer
23.4.2.1 Batch Size
23.4.2.2 Batch Conversion Factor
23.4.2.3 Density and Cost Calculations
23.4.2.4 Mixing Procedures
23.4.2.5 Mixing Temperatures
23.5 Mixing Methods
23.5.1 Natural Rubber Mastication
23.5.2 Masterbatch Mixing
23.5.3 Phase Mixing
23.5.4 Single-Stage Mix
23.5.5 Single-Cycle Mix
23.5.6 Two-Stage Mix
23.5.7 Tandem Mixing
23.5.8 Three-Stage Mix
23.5.9 Upside Down Mix
23.5.10 Variable Speed Mixing
23.5.11 Final Mix
23.5.12 Continuous Mixing
23.5.13 E-SBR Carbon Black Masterbatch
23.5.14 Energy Mixing
Index
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